• In short: The United Nations has made significant strides in addressing the impact of armed conflict on children, particularly in holding violators accountable. However, reports of grave violations against children continue to rise.

• Why does it matter? Despite progress, the surge in grave violations against children in conflict zones highlights the ongoing challenges and the need for stronger and actionable accountability measures. Ensuring justice and providing reparations and services to affected children and families are critical for long-term stability and development.

• Highlights: The UN has expertise and resources to enhance accountability measures. Scaling up successful interventions is crucial to addressing the needs of affected children. Providing reparations and services to children and families impacted by conflict remains a significant challenge.

• What needs to be done: The UN Secretary-General should establish a dedicated ‘accountability funding facility’ aimed at scaling up successful interventions and providing reparations and services to all affected children and families.

Introduction

This article examines the evolution and implementation of accountability within the UN's Global Agenda for Children in Armed Conflict (CAAC), emphasizing the need for scalable, actionable mechanisms to ensure justice and support for all affected children and families. By highlighting the critical components of accountability—identification, monitoring and reporting, strengthening national child protection systems, including legal and judicial action, preventive measures, support and reparations, compliance and oversight, and impact assessment—the article provides a framework for tangible results. It also explores the disconnect between current mechanisms and the increasing violations, offering concrete actions and recommendations to bridge this gap. Ultimately, it advocates for a global commitment to protect the rights and well-being of children affected by armed conflict, ensuring accountability as a practical and effective framework.

Accountability within the normative framework for children and armed conflict

The normative framework for CAAC is an extensive system composed of international laws, treaties, conventions, and UN resolutions aimed at protecting children from the effects of armed conflict and ensuring accountability for violations. Key components include:

• Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols: These prohibit the recruitment and use of children under 15 in hostilities and ensure special respect and protection for children affected by conflict.

• Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and its Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict: These raise the minimum age for direct participation in hostilities to 18 and ban compulsory recruitment of children under 18 by national armed forces.

• UN Security Council Resolutions: Starting with Resolution 1261 in 1999, these resolutions have established and reinforced a framework for monitoring and reporting violations against children. Resolution 1612 created the Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism and other measures to ensure compliance and accountability. Resolution 1882 (2009) called for the implementation of action plans by parties to conflict to end violations against children. Resolution 2427 (2018) stressed the need for the investigation and prosecution of those responsible for violations, including cooperation with the International Criminal Court (ICC).

• Declarations and guidelines: The Paris Principles (2007), the Safe Schools Declaration (2015), and the Vancouver Principles (2017) provide guidelines for preventing child recruitment, reintegrating child soldiers, and protecting educational institutions from the effects of armed conflict.

Various UN entities and mechanisms support the implementation and enforcement of these standards, working collaboratively to safeguard children in conflict zones. They include the UNSG Special Representative for CAAC (SRSG CAAC), the Security Council’s annual open debate on children and armed conflict, the Group of Friends on Children and Armed Conflict which is grouping of 45 plus UN Member States, UNICEF, NGOs and civil society organizations.

At this year’s annual debate in June, Virginia Gamba, SRSG CAAC, told Security Council members that:

The disconnect between strengthened accountability mechanisms and increasing violations

Despite the accountability mechanisms provided by the normative framework, the number of violations continues to rise, highlighting a significant disconnect between efforts to enhance accountability and the reality on the ground.

The recent Annual Report of the United Nations Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict documented a 21 per cent increase in grave violations against children worldwide. According to UNICEF, the true number of grave violations remains unknown, with many violations going unreported due to access and security constraints.

Concrete actions vs. calls for action

A key distinction in the evolution of accountability is between concrete actions and calls for action. Concrete actions are those implemented as a result of UN Security Council resolutions. For example, Resolution 1612 (2005) established the MRM to monitor and report on grave violations against children in armed conflict, leading to tangible outcomes such as the development of action plans with parties to armed conflict to end violations and hold perpetrators accountable.

On the other hand, calls for action are expressions of intent or recommendations for action without a clear mechanism for implementation. While these calls are important for reiterating the normative framework, raising awareness, and mobilizing support, they do not in themselves result in concrete outcomes. It is essential for the UN and its partners to ensure that calls for action are followed by concrete measures to hold perpetrators accountable and protect children in conflict zones.

Overview of concrete accountability measures

The UN's efforts to address violations against children in armed conflict have led to the establishment of several concrete accountability measures. These measures, born out of Security Council resolutions and other initiatives, aim to hold perpetrators accountable and protect children affected by armed conflict.

• The Machel Report

The journey towards concrete accountability measures began with the landmark Machel Report in 1996. Commissioned by the UN, this report highlighted the devastating impact of armed conflict on children and called for urgent action to protect their rights. The Machel Report laid the foundation for subsequent efforts to strengthen accountability for violations against children in armed conflict.

• Appointment of the Special Representative for Children and Armed Conflict

In 1997, the UN Secretary-General appointed the first SRSG CAAC. This role was created to promote and protect the rights of children affected by armed conflict and to ensure that their voices are heard at the highest levels of decision-making. The Special Representative plays a crucial role in advocating for accountability for violations against children and in developing strategies to address these violations. However, her office is significantly constrained due to a lack of human resources to drive the change required to ensure improved accountability. For example, the UN Office of Internal Oversight Services reports that its estimated expenditure on all evaluation related activities, including reports was only $22,670.12 in 2020/2021: “OSRSG CAAC is a small entity with limited resources and relies partly on extrabudgetary funds to fulfil its mandated activities.”

• Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism (MRM)

As noted earlier, one of the most significant accountability measures is the Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism (MRM), established in 2005 by Security Council Resolution 1612. The MRM is a system for monitoring, reporting, and verifying violations against children in armed conflict. It provides a framework for collecting and analysing information on grave violations such as recruitment and use of child soldiers, killing and maiming, and sexual violence.

• Special Working Group on Children and Armed Conflict

The UN Security Council's Special Working Group on Children and Armed Conflict was established to oversee the implementation of Resolution 1612 and the MRM. The Working Group monitors compliance with international norms regarding children in armed conflict and works to ensure that parties to armed conflict are held accountable for their actions.

• The Policy on Child Protection in United Nations Peace Operations (2017)

The Policy on Child Protection in United Nations Peace Operations was developed as part of the UN's ongoing efforts to strengthen the protection of children affected by armed conflict and to improve accountability for grave violations against children. The policy's history and genesis can be traced through several key developments and initiatives within the UN system.

• Other concrete actions

In addition to these key measures, other important actions have been taken to strengthen accountability for violations against children in armed conflict. These include the development of action plans with parties to armed conflict to end violations and the imposition of targeted sanctions against individuals or entities responsible for violations.

These concrete accountability measures represent significant progress in the UN's Global Agenda for Children in Armed Conflict. However, challenges remain in ensuring that these measures are effectively implemented and that perpetrators are held accountable for their actions. By continuing to prioritize accountability and taking concrete actions to protect children, the international community can make a real difference in the lives of children affected by armed conflict.

Accountability within the CAAC agenda

A formal definition of accountability within the CAAC agenda isn't explicitly standardized across key documents, but there are foundational and new frameworks and guidelines that provide a comprehensive understanding of accountability in this context.

• Guidelines on the Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism (MRM) on Grave Violations against Children in Situations of Armed Conflict (2014)

These guidelines were created to support field practitioners in systematically gathering and reporting accurate information on grave violations against children in armed conflict. The MRM aims to foster accountability and ensure compliance with international child protection standards through comprehensive data collection, advocacy, and programmatic response. Developed with input from various UN and non-governmental partners, the guidelines reflect lessons learned from implementing the MRM in multiple conflict zones, emphasizing the importance of timely, reliable information to drive effective advocacy and protective measures for children.

While the guidelines do not propose a specific definition of accountability, they emphasise the centrality of accountability by ensuring that parties to conflicts are held responsible for violations against children. This is achieved through dialogue with state and non-state actors to secure commitments and implement Action Plans addressing issues such as child recruitment, sexual violence, and attacks on schools. The MRM's reporting mechanisms, including annual and periodic reports to the UN Security Council, facilitate international oversight and prompt action. Additionally, the guidelines stress using MRM information for local advocacy and response, ensuring that violations are addressed swiftly. Accountability is further reinforced by listing and delisting criteria for parties to conflict based on their adherence to child protection commitments, with the ultimate goal of protecting children and preventing future violations. Ideally:

• Children in Armed Conflict Accountability Framework (2015)

The Children in Armed Conflict Accountability Framework, developed by Conflict Dynamics International, aims to advance accountability for serious violations of international law committed against children in armed conflict. This comprehensive framework provides a detailed definition and structure for understanding accountability, alongside practical guidance for developing strategic approaches to improve accountability efforts. The genesis of the framework lies in the need to address significant gaps in preventing and remedying violations against children in conflict zones, drawing upon both international and national laws and norms, and leveraging the roles and responsibilities of various state and non-state actors.

Accountability, as defined in the framework, involves the prevention and remedy of serious violations through judicial and nonjudicial actions at multiple levels—local, national, regional, and international. It includes four interrelated components: assigning responsibility by identifying and publicizing perpetrators, enforcing laws and norms through sanctions and prosecutions, reforming systems by developing and implementing relevant laws and policies, and empowering children by involving them in accountability processes and ensuring they receive remedies and redress.

The framework identifies several gaps in current accountability efforts. One major gap is the lack of attention to children in general accountability processes, where initiatives often fail to address their specific needs. Another issue is the underutilization of child-specific mechanisms, which are often inconsistently or ineffectively implemented. Additionally, there is a fragmented approach to accountability, with insufficient collaboration among different sectors and levels. Political deadlocks and security challenges further exacerbate the situation, hindering protection activities in high-need areas.

To address these gaps, the framework recommends strengthening child-specific mechanisms, promoting integration and coordination among various accountability processes, increasing attention to children's specific needs in general accountability initiatives, and overcoming political and security challenges to enhance the capacity of humanitarian actors to operate effectively. These recommendations aim to create a more coherent and effective approach to holding perpetrators accountable and ensuring the protection and well-being of children in armed conflict.

• European Union Guidelines on Children and Armed Conflict (2024)

The new EEAS-EU Guidelines on Children and Armed Conflict aim to protect the rights and well-being of children affected by armed conflict, reflecting the EU's commitment to advancing the UN's CAAC agenda. First adopted in 2003 and updated in 2008, these guidelines were revised in 2024 to align with current global policies and EU developments.

The guidelines define accountability as ensuring those responsible for violations against children are held accountable through judicial and non-judicial measures, including prosecutions, sanctions, and reparations, alongside preventive actions like monitoring and institutional reforms.

Key recommendations include investing in early warning systems and inclusive education to prevent conflicts, ensuring sustained funding for long-term child protection programs, and developing age- and gender-responsive protection systems in conflict areas. The guidelines also emphasize child-focused monitoring, prosecution of crimes, and child-friendly justice systems, along with the meaningful inclusion of children and youth in decision-making processes. These efforts aim to create a comprehensive and coordinated approach to protecting children in armed conflict, integrating child protection into broader humanitarian, development, and peacebuilding initiatives.

UN SRSG CAAC and UNICEF recommendations for stricter accountability

The SRSG CAAC and UNICEF have outlined several key recommendations to enhance accountability and protect children in armed conflict.

• Collaboration with existing accountability mechanisms

In 2022, the Special Representative released the Study on the Evolution of the Children and Armed Conflict Mandate 1996-2021. This study comprehensively analyses the challenges, opportunities, and successes in delivering the United Nations' children and armed conflict mandate since its inception. The genesis of the study lies in the need to document and assess the progress made under the CAAC mandate, established following the 1996 Graça Machel report on the impact of armed conflict on children.

The SRSG CAAC study emphasizes the need for enhancing dialogue and engagement with all conflict parties, including non-state actors, to establish comprehensive accountability measures. It underscores the importance of supporting national accountability mechanisms by advocating for legislative reforms and ensuring that parties to conflict develop and implement action plans to prevent and address all six grave violations against children. Additionally, the study calls for strengthening collaboration with existing accountability mechanisms such as the International Criminal Court (ICC) and regional bodies like the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the European Court of Human Rights. The inclusion of grave violations against children as criteria in sanctions committees is highlighted as an essential tool for pursuing accountability.

Moreover, the study recommends increased cooperation with civil society organizations to enhance advocacy efforts and ensure the protection of children. It stresses the importance of continuous support for child protection capacity within UN missions and country teams, advocating for the inclusion of child protection experts and improving data analysis and information management capacities. Prioritizing reintegration programming for survivors of grave violations is another critical recommendation, highlighting the need for these programs to address the specific experiences and reintegration needs of girls and the challenges related to different geographical contexts. The study also calls for a long-term approach and adequate resourcing in reintegration programming, addressing cross-border dimensions of grave violations, and involving children formerly associated with armed forces and groups in the development of these programs.

• Legal, judicial, and policy frameworks during and after conflicts

In parallel, UNICEF published 25 Years of Children and Armed Conflict: Taking Action to Protect Children in War, in 2022, reviewing the progress and challenges in protecting children affected by armed conflict since the 1996 Graça Machel report. UNICEF emphasizes the need for the UN and its member states to further engage in meaningful dialogue with all conflict parties, including non-state actors, to end and prevent violations against children. The report highlights the importance of developing and implementing legislative measures to strengthen legal, judicial, and policy frameworks during and after conflicts. This includes fully implementing international protocols such as the Paris and Vancouver Principles.

UNICEF urges conflict parties to create action plans addressing grave violations with time-bound commitments and to improve data collection on affected children to enhance advocacy and response programs. The report calls for long-term, predictable funding from the donor community to support child-centred, gender-sensitive interventions. It stresses the need for states to endorse community-based reintegration programs for children formerly associated with armed forces, recognizing them as victims and providing non-discriminatory services. Furthermore, UNICEF emphasizes the necessity for enhanced community-based prevention and protection mechanisms, ensuring safe and unimpeded access for humanitarian aid, and securing sufficient funding for Country Task Forces for MRMs and their NGO partners to continue monitoring, reporting, and engaging with conflict parties effectively.

Together, these reports from the SRSG CAAC and UNICEF underscore the critical need for holding perpetrators accountable for their actions and ensuring that children affected by armed conflict receive the protection and support they require. By implementing these recommendations, the international community can make significant progress in safeguarding children in armed conflict and ensuring justice for victims.

Towards a working definition of accountability within the CAAC agenda, with accountability operating at scale

While preventing and resolving conflicts is inherently challenging, the UN has the expertise and resources to strengthen other aspects of accountability, such as scaling up successful interventions and providing reparations and services to all affected children and families. Achieving these goals, however, requires strong political commitment from Member States.

The working definition of accountability described here is focused on accountability at scale for documenting and verifying every grave violation everywhere, and ensuring that every child and their family subjected to a grave violation can access reparations and essential services, and justice.

Accountability within the CAAC framework is a systematic process designed to ensure that grave violations against children are comprehensively addressed through specific, measurable actions. This process aims to uphold the rights and well-being of every child and family subjected to such violations, everywhere.

The first essential component is identification and monitoring. Establishing robust mechanisms like the Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism is crucial for accurately verifying and reporting violations in a timely manner. These mechanisms ensure that data collection is systematic and that all violations are documented, providing a solid foundation for subsequent actions.

Legal and judicial action as part of broader child protection system strengthening forms the backbone of the accountability process. It involves strengthening national legal systems to investigate, prosecute, and punish perpetrators. This component not only enhances the legal framework but also ensures that judicial processes are child and family friendly, gender transformative, accessible and effective in delivering justice for all affected children and families.

Preventive measures are vital to mitigating risks and preventing future violations. This component includes establishing early warning systems, developing and enforcing action plans, implementing educational programs, conducting community awareness campaigns, and establishing protective environments to safeguard children and families from potential harm.

Support and reparations at scale are integral to addressing the immediate and long-term needs of affected children and their families. This component encompasses comprehensive support services such as psychosocial care, educational assistance, and financial compensation, ensuring that all victims receive the necessary support to overcome the trauma and disruption caused by these violations.

Compliance and oversight are fundamental to maintaining accountability. This component involves conducting regular audits, evaluations, and coordinating efforts among UN agencies, national governments, and other stakeholders to monitor and enforce compliance with established standards and protocols, ensuring that accountability measures are consistently applied across all contexts.

Impact assessment is crucial for evaluating the effectiveness of accountability measures. This component involves conducting periodic assessments to identify successes, challenges, and areas for improvement. The feedback loop provided by these assessments is essential for refining strategies and ensuring that accountability efforts achieve their intended outcomes.

By integrating these components at scale, the CAAC agenda aims to deliver justice, deter future violations, and uphold the rights and well-being of children affected by armed conflict. This systematic approach ensures that accountability is not just a theoretical concept but a practical, actionable framework that provides tangible results for children and families, everywhere and at all times.

Proposal for a UN Secretary-General's ‘CAAC Accountability Funding Facility’

To further strengthen the UN's commitment to protecting children in armed conflict, the UN Secretary-General should establish a dedicated funding facility aimed at enhancing actionable accountability mechanisms for grave violations. This facility would have the following broad objectives:

1. Strengthening early warning systems: Enhancing the capacity of early warning systems to detect and respond to threats in real-time.

2. Enabling country task forces to implement the MRM at scale: Providing funding for comprehensive analyses of local conflict situations and supporting the scale-up of the MRM, including the referral of affected children and families to appropriate support services.

3. Ensuring access to recovery and reintegration programs and reparations: Funding the establishment and operation of service centres and local civil society organisations to providing comprehensive support services at scale.

4. Enabling the full implementation of the Policy on Child Protection in United Nations Peace Operations: Supporting the deployment of a sufficient number of Child Protection Advisers (CPAs) to scale up efforts for local child protection systems strengthening, including strengthening legal systems for the prevention and prosecution of grave violations and providing ongoing training for peacekeepers.

5. Strengthening the capacity of the UN SRSG CAAC and the Working Group on CAAC: Enhancing resources and capabilities to develop detailed, measurable action plans and improved reporting mechanisms.

6. Investing in the OIOS for regular rigorous evaluations: Allocating dedicated funding for more regular and robust internal and independent evaluations of the Child Protection in United Nations Peace Operations.

7. Commissioning a 'Machel Report' Version 2.0: Investigating current challenges and gaps in preventing grave violations against children and strengthening accountability mechanisms.

The UN has several purpose-driven funding mechanisms. The United Nations Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF) and the United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Trafficking in Persons are key examples of UN funding facilities. CERF provides rapid funding for emergencies, supported by contributions from member states, private organizations, and individuals. The Voluntary Trust Fund for Trafficking Victims aids victims with humanitarian and legal assistance, funded by governments and private donors.

Other UN funding mechanisms include the UN Trust Fund to End Violence Against Women, the Green Climate Fund (GCF), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United Nations Peacebuilding Fund (PBF), the Joint SDG Fund, and the United Nations Democracy Fund (UNDEF). These funds illustrate the UN's strategy of leveraging diverse financial mechanisms to address global challenges.

Conclusion

The evolution of accountability within the UN's Global Agenda for Children in Armed Conflict highlights a crucial need for enhanced measures to protect children from the devastating impacts of armed conflict. Despite progress, the increasing reports of grave violations indicate a significant gap between existing accountability frameworks and the reality on the ground. The international community must prioritize concrete actions over mere calls for action to ensure perpetrators are held accountable and children receive the necessary support and reparations.

Key components of accountability include robust identification and monitoring mechanisms, strengthened legal and judicial actions, preventive measures, comprehensive support and reparations, strict compliance and oversight, and regular impact assessments. Integrating these elements systematically ensures that accountability is not just a theoretical concept but a practical framework that delivers tangible results for affected children and their families.

To further strengthen these efforts, a dedicated funding facility proposed by the UN Secretary-General could enhance the capacity to implement actionable accountability mechanisms at scale. This facility would support early warning systems, enable comprehensive implementation of the Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism (MRM), ensure the full implementation of the Policy on Child Protection in United Nations Peace Operations, ensure access to recovery and reintegration programs, and bolster the capacity of UN entities to develop and enforce detailed action plans.

By prioritizing accountability and committing to concrete, scalable actions, significant progress can be made in protecting children in armed conflict and ensuring justice for victims. This commitment is essential for long-term stability, development, and the protection of children's rights and well-being globally.

Acknowledgement

I used ChatGPT, an AI tool from OpenAI, to help gather information and pull together this blog post. It’s a great way to get a well-rounded view on the topic. If there are any mistakes, they’re totally on me, not ChatGPT.